Time to Complete lesson: 30 mins

Purifying drinking water is a process that has developed over many hundreds of years. As society developed from the rural environment into the Industrial age, the necessity of pure clean drinking water has increased.

For many decades, chemicals have been used to purify water. This is a very contentious topic. Water Authorities have guidelines on what types of chemicals can be used, and for allowable limits of certain impurities in water.

Chlorine has been the traditional method in cleansing water of Bacteria, however, Pristine Water Systems prefers a far more natural method. And whilst our products are still classified as a Chemical, they are a natural method with benefits that far outweigh the use of Chlorine.

Other than Bacteria and Solids, your customers’ water source could have unwarranted chemicals and substances that make the water unsightly, or unsuitable for drinking. Knowing what these are, the suitable levels as defined by the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG), and what solutions are available, is the key to the PWS service approach.

Through this section, we will outline the Chemicals and Substances found in water that PWS provide test results for, and what we use to help sanitize drinking water systems.

For an example of a 50-point Water Test, refer to Appendix 1 of this Module.

4.0.1 Test Criteria for Water Analysis

When you submit a water test through PWSA, you will receive test results that provide a 50-point check. This test is conducted to test what chemicals and substances might be present in the water sample.

How to conduct a Water Test is outlined in Module 4, Section 4. An example copy of a 50-point Water Test is available at Appendix 1.

There are several categories of testing. The following section defines the categories of the testing, what the water is being tested for, a description of the test and the maximum allowable levels according to the ADWG.

ADWG Parameters

Substance/Metal/Mineral	Maximum Allowable Levels	Substance/Metal/Mineral	Maximum Allowable Levels
pH	6.5 to 8.5	Sodium (Na⁺)	< 180mg/L
Conductivity (U5/cm @ 20C)	5 – 50 mS/m	Potassium (K+)	Nil
TDS (ppm)	< 600 mg/L	Calcium (Ca2+)	20 – 30 mg/L
Total Hardness (mg/L CaCO₃)	< 200 milligrams/L	Magnesium (Mg 2+)	10mg/L
Aluminium (Al)	< 0.1mg/L	Ammonium (NH₄⁺)	Nil
Iron (Fe)	< 0.3mg/L	Ammonia (NH3)	< 0.5 mg/L
Manganese (Mn)	< 0.05mg/L	Antimony (Sb)	< 0.003 mg/L
Bicarbonate (HCO3-)	Nil	Arsenic (As)	< 0.01 mg/L
Carbonate (CO32-)	Nil	Barium (Ba)	< 0.7 mg/L
Phosphate (PO_4-)	< 5mg/L	Beryllium (Be)	< 0.06 mg/L
Nitrate (NO_3-)	50mg/L	Boron (B)	< 4 mg/L
Sulphate (SO₄^2-)	< 250mg/L (no greater than 500mg/L)	Cadmium (Cd)	< 0.002 mg/L
Chloride (CI-)	< 250mg/L	Chromium (Cr)	< 0.05 mg/L
Fluoride (F-)	< 1.5mg/L	Cobalt (Co)	Nil
Iodine (I)	< 0.15mg/L	Copper (Cu)	< 2 mg/L
Silica (mg/L)	< 80 mg/L	Lead (Pb)	< 0.01 mg/L
Lithium (Li)	< 0.70 mg/L
Sodium absorption ratio	Mercury (Hg)	< 0.001 mg/L
Residual Alkali (mEq/L)	Molybdenum (Mo)	< 0.05 mg/L
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)	Nickel (Ni)	< 0.02 mg/L
Total alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3)	Selenium (Se)	< 0.01 mg/L
Silver (Ag)	< 0.1 mg/L
# Sum Cations	Strontium (Sr)	< 1.5 mg/L
Sum anions	Uranium (U)	< 0.017 mg/L
% Difference	Vanadium (V)	Nil
Zinc (Zn)	< 3 mg/L

An explanation of each element tested is provided below.

4.0.1-1 pH

pH is a figure expressing the acidity or alkalinity on a logarithmic scale. The range goes from 0 to 14.

7 is neutral
< 7 = more acidic
> 7 = more alkalinity

The pH of pure water is 7. Normal drinkable water is around 6.5 to 8.5 pH.

4.0.1-2 Conductivity

Conductivity is a measure of water’s capability to pass electrical flow. This ability is directly related to the concentration of ions in the water. These conductive ions come from dissolved salts and inorganic materials such as alkalis, chlorides, sulphides and carbonate compounds.

Pure distilled water is a poor conductor of electricity. When salts and other inorganic chemicals dissolve in water, they break into tiny, electrically charged particles called ions. Ions increase the water’s ability to conduct electricity.

Organic compounds such as sugars, oils, and alcohols, do not form ions that conduct electricity.

Typical drinking water has a conductivity in the range of 5 – 50 mS/m (Millisiemens per meter). The ADWG has no value for conductivity.

4.0.1-3 Total Dissolved Solids or TDS (ppm)

Total Dissolved Solids comprise inorganic salts (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulfates), and some small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water.

The ADWG stipulates that TDS in drinking water < 600 mg/L is regarded as good quality drinking water.

4.0.1-4 Total Hardness (mg/L CaCO₃)

Total Hardness is a measurement of the mineral content in a water sample that is irreversible by boiling. It can be equivalent to the total calcium and magnesium hardness and is determined by the multivalent cations’ concentrations present in water.

The ADWG defines elevated hardness as 200 milligrams of calcium and magnesium salts per litre of water.

4.0.1-5 Sodium (Na⁺)

Sodium is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. It is an alkali metal and is a natural component of water.

It is essential for normal functioning of the human body. It can be found in all body tissues and fluids, and it is not generally considered harmful at normal levels of intake from combined food and drinking water sources.

Drinking water levels should be based on taste, but not exceed 180mg/L.

However, persons who are monitoring their salt intake for high blood pressure, with cardiovascular or heart disease, kidney problems or low sodium diets, should be aware of sodium in their drinking water when the level is greater than 20mg/L.

4.0.1-6 Potassium (K)

Potassium has many roles within the body and helps lower heart rates, dilates arteries and can help lower blood pressure. Antagonistic elements to (K) are calcium. Extremely low potassium is associated with low blood sugar. And low blood pressure. It plays a major role in cell functioning and it can help sodium’s effect on blood pressure.

Associated Symptoms of Potassium Excess;

Muscle Weakness
Muscle Spasm
High Blood Sugar

The ADWG has no value for potassium in drinking water. The recommended daily dietary intake for potassium is 5000mg

4.0.1-7 Calcium (Ca⁺⁺)

Approximately 95-98% of body calcium is found in our bones and teeth.

Calcium is essential for cell membrane regulation, regulation of body fluids, (Blood) hormonal secretion and muscular movement.

Associated Symptoms of Calcium Deficiency;

Tooth decay
Poor bone growth
Mastitis
Arthritis
Irritability
Nervousness
Poor milk production
Osteoporosis
Milk fever

Associated Symptoms of Calcium Excess;

Constipation
Kidney stones
Hardening of the Arteries
Arthritis
Fatigue
Gall Stones

There is no ADWG value for calcium. Levels between 20 – 30 mg/L are desirable for drinking water. Very high levels, however, will produce scale and clog up water pipes.

4.0.1-8 Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium is an essential element in the human body.

Low magnesium levels can correlate to poor diet, diarrhoea and excessive perspiration.
Magnesium is one of the most important elements in the cellular metabolism
A Magnesium deficiency can cause irritability, a short-tempered nature, muscle tremors and anxiety, as magnesium is a natural sedative.
Magnesium is particularly sensitive to physical stress and certain foods will interfere with absorption.
Major bodily functions include prevention of kidney stones, energy production, nerve conduction and as a natural laxative.

Associated Symptoms of Magnesium Excess;

Lethargy
Confusion
Muscle weakness
Diarrhoea

There is no ADWG value for magnesium. A level around 10mg/L is desirable in drinking water. Very high levels of magnesium will produce scale and clog up water pipes.

4.0.1-9 Ammonium Sulphate (NH₄⁺)

Ammonia is highly toxic. It is a colourless, pungent gaseous compound of hydrogen and nitrogen that is highly soluble in water. It is a biologically active compound found in most waters as a normal biological degradation product of nitrogenous organic matter (protein).

It is typically used as a source of ammonia for disinfection.

Normally blood ammonium concentration is <50umol/L, and an increase to only 100 umol/L can lead to disturbance of consciousness. A blood ammonium concentration of 200 umol/L is associated wit coma and convulsions.

Ammonia is the preferred nitrogen-containing nutrient for plant growth. It can be converted to nitrite (NO2) and nitrate (NO3) by bacteria, and then used by plants.

When ammonia dissolves in water, a tiny amount of ammonium is produced. The amount of ammonium generated depends on the pH, temperature and concentration of dissolved salts in the water.

There are no guidelines as to the level of Ammonium Sulphate.

4.0.1-10 Ammonia (as NH3)

Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell, which dissolves in water to give a strongly alkaline solution. It may be present in drinking water as a result of disinfection with chloramines.

Natural levels in ground waters are usually below 0.2mg/L. Surface waters may contain up to 12mg/L.

The presence of elevated ammonia levels in raw water may interfere with the operation of manganese-removal filters because too much oxygen is consumed by nitrification, resulting in mouldy, earthy-tasting water. The presence of the ammonium cation in raw water may result in drinking water containing nitrite as the result of catalytic action or the accidental colonization of filters by ammonium-oxidizing bacteria.

The presence of ammonia may indicate sewage contamination and/or microbial activity. High levels may corrode copper pipes and fittings.

The ADWG value for Ammonia in drinking water is 0.5mg/L.

4.0.1-11 Aluminium (Al)

Aluminium in water occurs in very low concentrations (<0.05mg/L) and occurs as result of weathering of clays.

There is no health related guideline values for aluminium in water. It is recommended that the concentration levels don’t exceed 0.2mg/L. This value is based after flocculating (where fine particulates are caused to clump together), the water with aluminium sulphate.

Levels below 0.1mg/L are desirable. Water used for renal patients must have even lower levels (<0.01mg/L).

Aluminium can have an adverse effect on the skeletal frame by interfering with other nutrient metabolism and uptake. If your analysis report shows an excess there is a possibility of the following symptoms.

Early symptoms of aluminium toxicity include flatulence, headaches, colic, dryness of the skin and mucous membranes, tendencies for colds, burning pain in the head relieved by food, heartburn and an aversion to meat. Later symptoms include paralytic muscular conditions, loss of memory and mental confusion.

Sources of (Ai) Toxicity;

Fluoridated drinking water can increase leaching of Aluminium components from drinking water systems, (when aluminium components are in use)
Certain table salts
Rat poisons
Fungicides
Wood Preservatives
Some Paints
Pesticides
Some ground water supplies
Some Arsenic is found naturally in foods.

4.0.1-12 Iron (Fe)

Iron occurs naturally in low concentrations (<1mg/L) in most waters from the slow decomposition of rocks. Some bore waters, however, could contain very high levels (>100mg/L).

There is no health related guideline value for iron, however, for aesthetic reasons (taste and staining), the concentration of iron in drinking water should not exceed 0.3mg/L

High concentrations stain laundry and fittings

Iron bacteria cause blockages, tastes/odour, and corrosion.

Associated Symptoms of Iron Excess;

Liver Disease
Hostility

4.0.1-13 Manganese

Like Iron, manganese occurs naturally in water; low in surface water, higher in oxygen-depleted water (e.g. ground water at bottom of deep storages) in low concentrations (<0.1mg/L). Some bore waters may have high levels (>10mg/L). Above 0.1mg/L, the aesthetic quality (taste and staining) will occur.

Desirable levels of manganese in drinking water is <0.05mg/L.

Manganese is distributed throughout most of the body’s tissues, bones, kidney, liver, tendons and connective tissues. It is essential for energy and bone development. Manganese deficiency can slow down bone growth and effect body strength.

Manganese is more noted for forming a black scale or sand like residual in pipelines, irrigation systems, taps and fixtures etc. It is usually a dry solid particle when oxidized; however, when (Mg) bacteria is present it can turn into a messy black smelly sludge that can block pipes and fixtures completely in a very short space of time.

Associated Symptoms of Manganese Excess;

Anorexia Iron Deficiency
Abnormal Neurological Symptoms
Speech Disorders
Unsteadiness
Pipe blockages and black sludge formation in and around plumbing etc.

4.0.1-14 Bicarbonate (HCO₃)

Bicarbonate is one component of alkalinity and its concentration is in a balance with carbon dioxide between the pH range of 4.4 and 8.2, and in a balance with carbonate between the pH range of 8.2 and 9.6

In water, carbonate and bicarbonate always occur together in solution in equilibrium with one another, with the pH and with atmospheric carbon dioxide.

There is no ADWG value for carbonate.

4.0.1-15 Carbonate (CO₃²)

Carbonate is one component of alkalinity and its concentration is in a balance with bicarbonate between the pH range of 8.2 and 9.6. At a pH of 9.6 and higher, there is no carbon dioxide or bicarbonate, with all alkalinity being in the carbonate form.

Carbonation is the process of raising the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in water to produce carbonated water and other carbonated beverages – either by the addition of carbon dioxide gas under pressure, or by dissolving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water.

There is no ADWG value for carbonate.

4.0.1-16 Phosphate (PO₄)

Phosphates are the naturally occurring form of the element phosphorus, found in many phosphate minerals. It refers to a rock or ore containing phosphate ions.

Natural waters have a concentration of approximately 0.02ppm, which is a limiting factor for plant growth.

The ADWG has no guidelines on safe levels, however, the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommend a limit of 5mg/L (which is equivalent to 1.63mg/L of phosphorus).

4.0.1-17 Nitrate (NO₃)

Nitrates occur naturally, and are part of many important molecules. Some nitrates are used in fertilizers and other purposes.

Increasing in some waters (particularly ground water) from intensive farming and sewage effluent. Unpolluted waters usually contain only minute amounts of nitrate. In surface water, nitrate is a nutrient taken up by plants and assimilated into cell protein. Stimulation of plant growth, especially of algae, may cause water quality problems associated with eutrophication.

Guideline value will protect bottle-fed infants under 3-months from methaemoglobinaemia. Adults and children over 3 months can safely drink water with up to 100mg/L nitrate.

The ADWG value for nitrate in drinking water is 50mg/L.

4.0.1-18 Sulphate (SO₄²)

Sulphate occurs naturally in surface waters and underground waters.

Levels > 500mg/L can have purgative effects (upset stomach and vomiting). Levels <400mg/L are considered acceptable for human consumption but levels above 250mg/L will cause aesthetic problems (appearance).

The ADWG value for sulphate is 500mg/L and the aesthetic (taste) ADWG value is 250mg/L.

4.0.1-19 Chloride (Cl)

Chloride occurs naturally in waters from minerals and salt. High concentrations more common in ground water and certain catchments.

Chloride in irrigation water is a problem and is generally associated with leaf burn to plants when sprinkle irrigation is used. Readings over 500ml (ppm) generally create problems in irrigation water which will require treatment to prevent damage to plants and soils.

For aesthetic reasons (taste), drinking water should not exceed 250mg/L. There is no health related guideline value for chloride.

4.0.1-20 Fluoride (F)

Fluoride is essential for good oral health and serves to guard against tooth decay. It occurs naturally from fluoride-containing rocks, and is often found in elevated concentrations in bore waters.

Concentrations >1.5mg/L can cause dental fluorosis and concentrations >4mg/L can cause skeletal fluorosis. The ideal level for fluoride in drinking water ranges from 0.6mg/L to about 0.8mg/L.

The ADWG value for fluoride in drinking water is 1.5mg/L.

4.0.1-21 Iodine (I)

Iodine is an essential trace element and an integral component of thyroid hormones. The human body usually contains about 10 to 15mg, with the larger part found in the thyroid gland. The recommended daily intake for iodine is between 150 and 200 ug.

Taste threshold for Iodine is 0.15mg/L.

It is found in varying amounts in plants and animal foods. The average concentration of iodine in rivers is usually about 5ppb of iodine.

It is strongly reactive, even though it is less extreme for iodine than for other halogens.

As a pure element, iodine is toxic, even amounts as small as 2g may be lethal. In an alcoholic solution an amount of 30ml may be lethal. Iodines are relatively harmless in comparison. Children react fiercely to increased or decreased iodine uptake, because the thyroid gland is developing. It can be used as an emergency water disinfectant.

4.0.1-22 Antimony

Antimony is a semi-metal, and in its metallic form it is silvery, hard, and brittle. It is used in the electronics industry to make some semiconductor devices, such as infrared detectors and diodes. It is alloyed with lead or other metals to improve their hardness and strength.

Short-term exposure (over days or weeks) to antimony in drinking water at very high concentrations (above 30mg/L) can cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea.

The ADWG value for antimony is 3 micrograms/L. Young children should not drink water containing detectable levels of antimony (ie 1 microgram/L).

4.0.1-23 Arsenic (Ac)

Arsenic is a natural element that is widely found in the earth’s soil. Arsenic compounds are used commercially and industrially in the manufacture of a variety of products such as transistors, lasers, semiconductors, glass production, pigments, textiles, paper, metal adhesives, ceramics, wood preservatives, explosives and pesticides.

Arsenic is becoming more prevalent in bores all over Australia. We believe the slowing down of underground streams is allowing water to contact rock formations that contain natural arsenic.

Arsenic can find its way into drinking water from industrial waste and numerous commercial products commonly used by people.

Associated Symptoms of Arsenic Toxicity;

Digestive problems
Hair loss
Fatigue
Skin rashes
Vertigo
Muscle spasm
Fever
Anorexia
Diarrhoea
Kidney Damage.

Arsenic accumulates in the hair tissue and tissue analysis is an excellent detection method.

The ADWG acceptable level for arsenic is 0.01 mg/L.

4.0.1-24 Barium (Ba)

Primarily from natural sources, however, it is never found in nature as a free element. Barium is a lustrous, machinable metal, which exists in nature only in ores containing mixtures of elements.

People who drink water-containing barium well in excess of the maximum contaminant level for many years could experience an increase in their blood pressure.

The maximum contaminant level goal for barium is < 0.7 mg/L.

4.0.1-25 Beryllium (Be)

Beryllium is a silvery white metal which is relatively soft and has a low density. It makes it way into water from weathering of rocks, atmospheric deposition (burning of fossil fuels), discharges. But it is used to make mobile phones, missiles and aircraft.

The major source of Beryllium toxicity is industrial exposure. Minor areas of exposure can be found in soils caused by environmental pollution.

Associated Symptoms of Beryllium Toxicity;

Allergies
Lung Problems
Cell Division
Dermatitis

Drinking water that contains Beryllium is less of a health threat because it is not well absorbed in the intestines. However, it can lead to damage in the intestines. The health effects are of most concern for infants and small children.

The ADWG safe guidelines for Beryllium is < 0.06 mg/L.

4.0.1-26 Boron

Boron is a naturally occurring element. In nature it is found combined with oxygen and other natural elements forming several different compounds called borates. It is derived from natural leaching of minerals and contamination underground and on the surface.

The concentration of boron in most water is <1mg/L. Based on an acceptable range of oral intake, a concentration of up to 4mg/L in drinking water would not pose a human health risk.

The ADWG safe guidelines for Boron is < 4 mg/L.

4.0.1-27 Cadmium (Cd)

Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and is a by-product of zinc production. It was used for a long time as corrosion resistance plating on steel, and cadmium compounds are used as red, orange and yellow pigments to colour glass and to stabilize plastic. It can enter drinking water due to the corrosion of galvanised pipes and fittings.

Occupation and environmental exposure to Cadmium will play a major role in the toxic levels shown in the analysis. As can be seen in the following symptoms list, (Cd) excess is one of the most severe of toxins in the heavy metal tables. If your analysis report shows an excess of (Cd) there is a possibility of the following symptoms and this should be investigated and the necessary treatment protocols put in place.

Associated Symptoms of Elevated Cadmium

Anaemia
Vascular Disease
Decreased Fertility
Hypertension
Hyperactivity

The ADWG guidelines for Cadmium is < 0.002 mg/L

4.0.1-28 Chromium (Cr)

Chromium is a metal found in natural deposits as ores containing other elements. Its greatest use is in metal alloys such as stainless steel, protective coatings on metal, magnetic tapes, and pigments for paints, cement, paper, rubber, composition floor covering and other materials.

It is involved in the regulation and maintaining of blood sugar and energy levels. Low chromium levels are generally consistent with abnormal glucose metabolism as chromium levels regulate the blood glucose levels. A deficiency in the chromium levels may increase insulin requirements. Poor diet and a higher intake of refined carbohydrate will alter the chromium levels.

Associated Symptoms of Chromium Excess;

Vomiting
Diarrhoea
Kidney Damage
Calcium Deficiency
Sinusitis

The ADWG guidelines for Chromium is < 0.05 mg/L

4.0.1-29 Cobalt (Co)

Cobalt is a hard grey metal with magnetic properties. It is used to produce strong, corrosion and heat resistance alloys, permanent magnets and hard metals.

Cobalt exposures other than supplements are usually found from industrial contamination. It is known to reduce Thyroid activity and has been reported to lower blood pleasure in hypertensive patients. Excess Cobalt has been associated with anaemia and some medications may alter cobalt absorption rates.

Associated Symptoms of Cobalt Toxicity;

Insulin Inhibition
Vomiting
Deafness
Thyroid Dysfunction
Kidney Problems
Abdominal Pain

The ADWG does not have a guideline for levels of Cobalt in drinking water.

4.0.1-30 Copper

Copper can occur naturally in underground water supplies after passing over a zone of mineralisation rich in copper minerals.

In most waters, the copper concentration is <1mg/L. Greater than this may stain fittings.

Elevated levels in household water supplies can occur from corrosion of pipes/fittings by soft, low pH water. High concentrations (>5mg/L) will start to colour the water bluish green. For health reasons, the concentration of copper in drinking water should not exceed 2mg/L. The aesthetic quality (taste and staining) of drinking water will deteriorate above 1mg/L.

Copper imbalance as can be seen from the following possible symptoms can play a major part in one’s health. Copper accumulates in the liver and has reported to effect reproductive systems.

Associated Symptoms of Copper Excess;

Inflammation
Nausea
Infection
Allergies
Tooth Decay
Bone Fracture
Anaemia
Hyperactivity
Urinary Tract Infection

The ADWG guidelines for Copper is < 2mg/L.

4.0.1-31 Lead

Lead is a toxic heavy metal. It can occur in water via dissolution from natural sources or household plumbing containing lead (e.g. pipes, solder) or flashing on roof gutters.

Lead poisoning is the best known of all heavy metal symptoms.

Associated Symptoms of Lead Toxicity;

Constipation
Poor Fertility
Renal Dysfunction
Sterility
Anaemia
Fatigue
Tooth Decay
Weight Loss
Anxiety
Convulsions
Colic

The ADWG guidelines for Lead is < 0.01 mg/L

4.0.1-32 Lithium (Li)

Lithium is a chemical element. It is a soft, silvery white alkali metal. Not only is it used as a metal, but it is used for mental illnesses, eating disorders and for blood disorders.

Small amounts of Lithium are found in a wide variety of foods, and are found naturally in some water supplies.

Associated Symptoms of Lithium Excess;

Increased thirst Increased Urination
Confusion – Disorientation
Weight Gain
Vomiting
Hair Loss
Discoloured Urine (Alkalinity)

There is no ADWG guideline for the acceptable level of Lithium in drinking water. However, the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency – US), has established an estimated limit of 0.70 mg/L.

4.0.1-33 Mercury (Hg)

Mercury can occur naturally in groundwater or enter drinking water as a result of industrial emissions or spills Very low concentrations occur naturally.

In its organic form it is most toxic, but these are associated with biota, not water.

Industrial Sources include the burning of fossil fuels, oil, cement products, and solid waist incinerators. Ingestion is air borne pollution in the form of dust or ash. Mercury can remain in the body for several years and can accumulate in the brain in extreme concentrations.

In the event of exposure to the above-mentioned circumstances rainwater may be found to contain low levels of Mercury as well as most other water sources exposed to this environment.

Associated Symptoms of Mercury Toxicity;

Hair Loss Skin Rashes
Joint Pain
Nervousness
Excessive Salivation
Kidney Damage
Some Hearing Loss
Muscle Weakness

The ADWG guidelines for Mercury are < 0.001 mg/L

4.0.1-34 Molybdenum (Mo)

Molybdenum occurs naturally in soil and groundwater and is used in agriculture and mining.

Concentrations usually <0.01 mg/L; higher concentrations from mining, agriculture, or fly-ash deposits from coal-fuelled power stations.

The ADWG guidelines for Molybdenum is < 0.05 mg/L

4.0.1-35 Nickel (Ni)

Nickel occurs naturally in soils, ground water and surface waters and is often used in the manufacturing of stainless steel and alloy products.

Concentrations are usually very low; but up to 0.5 mg/L reported after prolonged contact of water with nickel-plated fittings.

More information relating to the effects of Nickel is known than any possible effects of a deficiency in nickel. Industrial absorption can result from steel making or nickel plating. Nickel is associated with reported cases of dermatitis.

Associated Symptoms of Nickel Toxicity;

Kidney Dysfunction
Skin Problems
Muscle Tremors Vomiting

The ADWG guidelines for Nickel is < 0.02 mg/L

4.0.1-36 Selenium (Se)

Selenium can occur naturally in groundwater and generally at very low concentrations.

Industrial ingestion from industries such as mining (copper, zinc, and lead) and the production of lime and cement in the form or airborne pollution are the major source of (Se)

Roles of Selenium in the body help maintain the digestive system, circulatory and reproductive systems. It is an extremely vital mineral for the human body as it increases immunity, takes part in antioxidant activity that defends against free radical damage and inflammation, and plays a key role in maintaining a healthy metabolism.

Associated symptoms of Selenium Excess;

Fatigue
Hair Loss
Liver damage
Loss of Appetite
Irritability
Gastrointestinal Problems
Nervous Tremors

The ADWG guidelines for Selenium is < 0.01 mg/L.

4.0.1-37 Silver (Ag)

Silver is a precious shiny greyish white metal. As a soft metal, it has many uses not only no an industrial level, but for coins, jewellery, silverware, and batteries amongst other items.

Levels found in drinking water are generally very low. Silver and silver salts are occasionally used for disinfection. It is typically found in groundwater.

The ADWG guidelines for Silver is < 0.1 mg/L

4.0.1-38 Strontium (Sr)

Strontium is a silvery metal found naturally as a non-radioactive element. About 99% of the strontium in the human bod is concentrated in the bones.

It is a minor contributor to hard water. It forms water-soluble salts, such as strontium chloride.

There is no ADWG guideline for the acceptable level of Strontium in drinking water. However, the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency – US), has established an estimated limit of 1.5 mg/L.

4.0.1-39 Uranium (U)

Uranium is a naturally occurring radionuclide in granite and other mineral deposits. It naturally occurs in some ground waters, from release from mine tailings and combustion of coal and phosphate fertiliser.

The use of Uranium in nuclear power is very different to the natural uranium that is found in the ground that affects ground water. For power, it is “enriched”. This enriched (radioactive) part of natural uranium is usually less than 1% of the uranium found naturally in the ground.

The main concern for natural uranium in drinking water is the chemical effects on the kidney (not radiation).

The ADWG guidelines for Uranium is < 0.017 mg/L.

4.0.1-40 Vanadium (V)

Vanadium is a chemical element often present in water from volcanic springs. It is a soft grey mineral that is classified as a ductile transition metal. It has good resistance to corrosion and it is stable against alkalis, sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. The primary industrial use for vanadium is in the strengthening of steel.

Average Vanadium concentrations in tap water are approximately 0.001 mg/L.

There is no ADWG guideline for the acceptable level of Vanadium in drinking water.

4.0.1-41 Zinc (Zn)

Zinc is a silvery white metal which is a constituent of brass and is used for coating (galvanizing) iron and steel to protect against corrosion.

Natural waters usually contain very low levels of zinc (<0.1mg/L). Elevated levels are usually from corrosion of galvanized pipes/fittings and brasses. Taste problems occur if >3mg/L.

Zink is in over eighty different enzyme systems in the body and is particularly effective in promoting the strength of the immune system. It is an antioxidant nutrient and is necessary for protein synthesis, wound healing, and is vital for the development of the reproductive organs and many other health related activities.

Associated symptoms of Zink Excess;

Nausea
Diarrhoea
Bone Integrity
Vomiting

The ADWG provides aesthetic guidelines for Zinc in drinking water < 3 mg/L.

4.0.1-42 Silica

Silica is the common name for silicon dioxide, one of the most abundant elements found in nature, second to oxygen. Our bodies contain around 7g of silica, concentrated mainly in our skin, bones, hair, tendons and blood vessels. It is essential for the production and maintenance of collagen in our body.

The total silica content of water is composed of “Reactive Silica” and “Unreactive Silica”. Reactive silica, though it has anionic characteristics, is not counted as an anion in terms of balancing a water analysis but it is counted as a part of TDS. Unreactive silica is polymerized or colloidal silica, acting more like a solid than a dissolved ion. All natural water supplies contain some dissolved silica and most will also contain suspended or colloidal silica.

The ADWG guidelines for Silica is < 80 mg/L.

4.0.2 Other Water Test Results

4.0.2-1 Sodium Absorption Ration (SAR)

The SAR is a parameter relevant to irrigation use and is a measure of the ratio of sodium to calcium and magnesium. When the ratio of sodium to calcium and magnesium is high, there is an adverse effect on soil structure and permeability, which can reduce crop yields and growth rates.

Generally, the higher the SAR value, the more unsuitable is the water for low salt-tolerant crops.

There is no ADWG guidelines for SAR.

4.0.2-2 Residual Alkalinity (m Eg/L)

Residual Alkalinity is defined as the remainder of carbonate and bicarbonate after subtracting the equivalent of Ca++ and Mg++ i.e. if the equivalent concentrations of HCO3- and CO32- ions exceed the concentrations of Ca++ and Mg++, the water is said to contain residual alkalinity.

Residual Alkalinity (RA) serves as a commonly used index to determine the suitability of the water for irrigation purposes. It is calculated by subtracting the concentrations of calcium and magnesium from the concentrations of carbonate and bicarbonate expressed in milli-equivalents per litre (meq/L).

A high RA will be damaging to soil structure and crop growth because Ca and Mg will be precipitated from soil solutions increasing the relative concentration of Na.

There is no ADWG value for Residual Alkalinity.

4.0.2-3 Total Alkalinity (mg/L CaCO3)

The Total Alkalinity (TA) is a measure of how much of the alkaline substances there are in the water.

Strong alkaline water has an objectionable “soda” taste. Quite often Total Alkalinity is confused with pH. While pH fluctuates on a logarithmic scale (0-14), Total Alkalinity acts as a buffer of that pH in the water by neutralizing acids. In other words, it is a measurement of the water’s ability to resist change in pH.

TA is a measurement of all alkaline substances dissolved in water (carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides amongst others). It is measured in parts per million (ppm). The ideal range is 80 to 120pm.

There is no ADWG value for Total Alkalinity.

4.0.2-4 Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)

Details of LSI are available at section 5.5 of this Module.

The Langelier Saturation Index (LSI) is an approximate measure of the degree of saturation of water with calcium carbonate. It depends on 4 factors:

pH
Calcium concentration
Alkalinity
Temperature

Measures of LSI:

LSI < 0: Water is under-saturated with respect to CaCO3 and cannot form a protective scale layer.
LSI = 0: Water is just saturated with CaCO3. This is an ideal situation whereby a protective scale coating will form slowly provided the water is not high in hardness.
LSI = 0 to 1: Water is saturated with CaCO3 and will produce a protective scale coating on pipes.
LSI > 1: The water has a high ability to form scale and capable of clogging up pipes.

4.0 Chemicals and Substances Found in Water

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1.0 Introduction

2.0 Franchise Service Fee

3.0 Franchisee Obligations

4.0 Franchisor - Franchisee Structure

5.0 Creating a Successful Franchise Business

6.0 Franchisee Support

Module 1 Appendix Items

Module 1 Quiz

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Administration

3.0 Franchise Inventory Lists

4.0 PODAC (Pristine Online Data Accounts & Clients)

5.0 ITF - In The Field APP

6.0 PWS Social Media Policy Guidelines

Module 2 - Appendix

Module 2 Quiz

1.0 Background of the Water Industry

2.0 Australian Drinking Water Guidelines (ADWG) Introduction

3.0 Common Water Borne Diseases

4.0 Chemicals and Substances found in Water

5.0 Pristine Water Systems Chemicals and Treatments

6.0 Water Testing/Analysis & Results

7.0 Industry Certifications

8.0 Safe Work Australia / Workplace Health & Safety / Occupational Health & Safety

9.0 Filtration & UV Products

10.0 Types of Tanks

11.0 Other PWS Products & Equipment

12.0 Glossary of Terms

Module 3 - Appendix

Module 3 Quiz

1.0 Introduction

2.0 The PWS Process

3.0 Planning your Work Schedule

4.0 Planning Product Ordering

5.0 Water Testing

6.0 AqueousPro™ 50 Water Sanitiser

7.0 Water Tank Cleaning

8.0 Filtration / Sterilisation Supply (Assembly)

9.0 Ongoing Service & Maintenance

10.0 PWS Standards

11.0 AqueousAir™ Assembly & Installation Instructions

Module 4 - Appendix

Module 4 Quiz

Module 5 Video Lessons

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Advertising & Marketing

3.0 Planning your Advertising & Marketing

4.0 Selling PWS / Selling Yourself

5.0 Assessments & Quoting

6.0 Invoicing

Module 5 Appendix

Module 5 Quiz

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Vehicle Maintenance

3.0 Equipment Maintenance

4.0 Process for Equipment Replacement / PWS Repair Request

Module 6 Quiz

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